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Chapter 1 Setting The Stage for Learning about The Earth |
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1 | (22) |
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1.1 The Challenge of Studying a Planet |
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2 | (1) |
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1.2 Studying Matter and Energy |
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3 | (5) |
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1.2.1 The Nature of Matter |
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4 | (1) |
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1.2.2 Distribution of Matter in the Earth System |
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4 | (3) |
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1.2.3 Energy in the Earth System |
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7 | (1) |
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1.3 Units for Scientific Measurement |
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8 | (3) |
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1.3.1 Units of Length and Distance |
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9 | (1) |
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1.3.2 Other Dimensions, Other Units |
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9 | (2) |
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1.4 Expressing Earth's "Vital Statistics" with Appropriate Units |
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11 | (1) |
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1.5 The Challenge of Scale when Studying a Planet |
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12 | (5) |
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1.5.1 Scientific Notation and Orders of Magnitude |
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12 | (3) |
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1.5.2 Coping with Scale Problems: Maps, Diagrams, and Models |
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15 | (2) |
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1.6 The Challenge of Working with Geologic Time |
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17 | (3) |
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1.6.1 Uniformitarianism: The Key to Understanding the Geologic Past |
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18 | (1) |
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1.6.2 Rates of Geologic Processes |
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18 | (1) |
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1.6.3 "Life Spans" of Mountains and Oceans |
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19 | (1) |
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1.7 Applying the Basics to Interpreting the Earth |
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20 | (3) |
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1.7.1 Pressure in the Earth |
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20 | (2) |
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Appendix 1.1 Metric-English Conversion Chart |
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22 | (1) |
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Chapter 2 The Way The Earth Works: Examining Plate Tectonics |
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23 | (26) |
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24 | (1) |
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2.2 The Plate Tectonics Theory |
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24 | (2) |
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2.3 Early Evidence for Plate Tectonics |
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26 | (4) |
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2.3.1 Evidence from the Fit of the Continents |
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26 | (2) |
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2.3.2 Evidence from Reconstructing Paleoclimate Belts |
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28 | (2) |
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2.4 Modern Evidence for Plate Tectonics |
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30 | (3) |
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2.4.1 Evidence for Sea-Floor Spreading: Oceanic Magnetic Anomalies |
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31 | (2) |
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2.5 Plate Tectonic Processes Revealed by Earth Features |
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33 | (14) |
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2.5.1 Sea-Floor Spreading |
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33 | (3) |
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2.5.2 Hot-Spot Volcanic Island Chains: Evidence for the Direction and Rate of Plate Motion |
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36 | (5) |
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2.5.3 Continental Rifting |
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41 | (2) |
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2.5.4 Subduction Zones: Deducing the Steepness of Subduction |
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43 | (3) |
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46 | (1) |
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2.6 Active versus Passive Continental Margins |
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47 | (2) |
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49 | (28) |
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50 | (1) |
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3.2 Classifying Earth Materials |
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50 | (1) |
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3.3 What Is a Mineral and What Isn't? |
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51 | (2) |
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3.4 Physical Properties of Minerals |
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53 | (9) |
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3.4.1 Diagnostic versus Ambiguous Properties |
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53 | (1) |
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53 | (1) |
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54 | (1) |
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55 | (1) |
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56 | (1) |
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57 | (1) |
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58 | (1) |
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59 | (2) |
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61 | (1) |
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61 | (1) |
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61 | (1) |
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61 | (1) |
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3.4.13 Reaction with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid |
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61 | (1) |
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62 | (1) |
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3.5 Identifying Mineral Specimens |
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62 | (1) |
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3.6 Mineral Classification |
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63 | (1) |
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3.7 Minerals in Everyday Life |
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64 | (13) |
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Appendix 3.1 Mineral Identification Flow Charts |
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66 | (3) |
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Appendix 3.2 Determinative Tables for Systematic Mineral Identification |
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69 | (4) |
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Appendix 3.3 Common Minerals and their Properties |
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73 | (4) |
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Chapter 4 Minerals, Rocks, and The Rock Cycle |
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77 | (18) |
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78 | (1) |
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4.2 The Three Classes of Rocks |
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78 | (1) |
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79 | (1) |
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4.3 A Rock Is More than the Sum of Its Minerals |
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79 | (5) |
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80 | (2) |
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4.3.2 Relationships among Grains |
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82 | (1) |
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4.3.3 Grain Orientation and Alignment |
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83 | (1) |
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4.4 The Processes That Produce Textures |
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84 | (4) |
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4.5 Clues about a Rock's Origin from the Minerals It Contains |
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88 | (1) |
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4.6 Identifying Minerals in Rocks |
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89 | (3) |
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4.7 Interpreting the Origin of Rocks |
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92 | (3) |
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Chapter 5 Using Igneous Rocks to Interpret Earth History |
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95 | (24) |
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96 | (1) |
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5.2 Interpreting the Cooling Histories of Igneous Rocks |
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96 | (8) |
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5.2.1 Grain Size in Crystalline Igneous Rock |
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97 | (4) |
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5.2.2 Glassy Igneous Textures |
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101 | (1) |
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5.2.3 Porous (Vesicular) Textures |
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102 | (1) |
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5.2.4 Fragmental Textures |
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102 | (1) |
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103 | (1) |
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5.3 Igneous Rock Classification and Identification |
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104 | (3) |
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5.3.1 Igneous Rock Classification: The Four Major Compositional Groups |
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105 | (1) |
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5.3.2 Identifying Igneous Rocks |
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106 | (1) |
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5.4 Origin and Evolution of Magmas |
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107 | (4) |
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5.4.1 Where and Why Do Rocks and Minerals Melt? |
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107 | (1) |
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5.4.2 How Do Rocks and Minerals Melt? |
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108 | (1) |
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5.4.3 Origin of the Igneous Rock Groups: Factors Controlling Magma Composition |
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108 | (3) |
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5.5 Igneous Rocks and Plate Tectonics |
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111 | (8) |
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5.5.1 Tectonic Settings of Ultramafic Rocks (Peridotites) |
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112 | (1) |
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5.5.2 Tectonic Settings of Mafic Igneous Rocks (Basalt and Gabbro) |
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112 | (1) |
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5.5.3 Tectonic Settings of Intermediate Rocks (Andesite and Diorite) |
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113 | (1) |
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5.5.4 Tectonic Settings of Felsic Rocks (Granite and Rhyolite) |
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113 | (2) |
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5.5.5 Visiting Localities Where Igneous Rocks Are Forming or Have Formed in the Past |
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115 | (4) |
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Chapter 6 Using Sedimentary Rocks to Interpret Earth History |
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119 | (30) |
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120 | (1) |
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6.2 Sediment Formation and Evolution |
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120 | (4) |
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6.2.1 The Origin of Sediment |
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120 | (1) |
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6.2.2 Weathering and Its Influence on Sediment Composition |
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121 | (2) |
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6.2.3 Mineralogical Maturity |
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123 | (1) |
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6.3 The Basic Classes of Sedimentary Rocks |
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124 | (5) |
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6.3.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rock |
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124 | (1) |
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6.3.2 Types of Sandstones |
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125 | (1) |
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6.3.3 Chemical Sedimentary Rock |
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125 | (2) |
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6.3.4 Biochemical and Organic Sedimentary Rocks |
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127 | (1) |
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6.3.5 Compositional Classes of Sedimentary Rocks |
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128 | (1) |
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6.3.6 Textural Classes of Sedimentary Rocks |
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128 | (1) |
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6.4 Identifying Sedimentary Rocks |
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129 | (1) |
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6.5 Interpreting Clastic Sedimentary Textures |
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130 | (7) |
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6.5.1 Grain Size and Sorting |
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130 | (4) |
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134 | (2) |
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6.5.3 Sediment "Maturity" |
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136 | (1) |
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6.5.4 Cements in Clastic Rocks |
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136 | (1) |
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6.6 Sedimentary Structures: Clues to Ancient Environments |
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137 | (6) |
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6.6.1 Beds and Stratification |
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137 | (1) |
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6.6.2 Sedimentary Structures |
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138 | (2) |
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6.6.3 Fossils: Remnants of Past Life |
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140 | (3) |
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6.7 Applying Your Knowledge to Stratigraphy |
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143 | (6) |
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Chapter 7 Interpreting Metamorphic Rocks |
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149 | (26) |
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150 | (1) |
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7.2 Agents of Metamorphism |
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151 | (5) |
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152 | (1) |
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7.2.2 The Effect of Pressure |
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152 | (1) |
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7.2.3 The Effect of Temperature and Pressure Combined |
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153 | (1) |
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7.2.4 The Effect of Hydrothermal Fluids |
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154 | (1) |
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7.2.5 Environments of Metamorphism |
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155 | (1) |
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7.3 What Can We Learn from a Metamorphic Rock? |
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156 | (12) |
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7.3.1 Identifying the Protolith: Compositional Classes |
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156 | (2) |
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7.3.2 Interpreting Metamorphic Texture |
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158 | (4) |
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7.3.3 Interpreting the Type of Metamorphism |
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162 | (1) |
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7.3.4 Textures Produced by Dynamic Metamorphism |
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162 | (2) |
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7.3.5 Determining Metamorphic Grade |
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164 | (4) |
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7.4 Metamorphic Rock Classification and Identification |
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168 | (3) |
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7.5 Applying Your Knowledge of Metamorphic Rocks to Geologic Problems |
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171 | (4) |
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Chapter 8 Studying Earth's Landforms |
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175 | (16) |
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176 | (1) |
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8.2 Images Used to Study Earth's Surface |
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176 | (3) |
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179 | (1) |
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179 | (10) |
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8.3.1 Map Element 1: Location |
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179 | (7) |
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8.3.2 Map Element 2: Direction |
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186 | (1) |
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8.3.3 Map Element 3: Distance and Scale |
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187 | (2) |
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8.4 Vertical Exaggeration---A Matter of Perspective |
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189 | (2) |
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Chapter 9 Working with Topographic Maps |
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191 | (32) |
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192 | (1) |
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192 | (3) |
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9.2.1 Contour Lines on Topographic Maps |
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194 | (1) |
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9.3 Reading Topographic Maps |
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195 | (10) |
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9.3.1 Contour Lines and Elevation |
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198 | (1) |
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9.3.2 Contour Lines and Streams: Which Way Is the Water Flowing? |
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199 | (6) |
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205 | (3) |
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9.4.1 Constructing a Topographic Profile |
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205 | (1) |
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9.4.2 Vertical Exaggeration |
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206 | (2) |
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9.5 Additional Information Shown on Topographic Maps |
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208 | (1) |
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9.6 Using Topographic Maps to Predict and Prevent Natural Disasters |
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208 | (15) |
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Appendix 9.1 Topographic Map Symbols |
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215 | (8) |
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Chapter 10 Landscapes Formed by Streams |
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223 | (32) |
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224 | (1) |
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10.2 How Do Streams Work? |
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224 | (7) |
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10.2.1 Stream Erosion: Downward or Sideways |
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226 | (5) |
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10.3 Stream Valley Types and Features |
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231 | (3) |
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10.3.1 Features of Floodplains |
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233 | (1) |
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10.4 Changes in Streams over Time |
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234 | (4) |
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238 | (4) |
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238 | (1) |
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238 | (4) |
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10.6 Changes in Stream-Carved Landscapes with Time |
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242 | (5) |
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10.7 When Streams Don't Seem to Follow the Rules |
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247 | (4) |
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10.8 When There's Too Much Water: Floods |
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251 | (4) |
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Chapter 11 Glacial Landscapes |
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255 | (24) |
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256 | (3) |
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256 | (2) |
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11.1.2 How Glaciers Create Landforms |
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258 | (1) |
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11.2 Landscapes Produced by Continental Glaciation |
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259 | (11) |
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11.2.1 Erosional Landscapes |
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260 | (1) |
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11.2.2 Depositional Landscapes |
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260 | (10) |
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11.3 Landscapes Produced by Mountain Glaciation |
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270 | (9) |
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Chapter 12 Groundwater As A Landscape Former and Resource |
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279 | (20) |
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280 | (1) |
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12.2 Aquifers and Aquitards |
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280 | (4) |
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12.3 Landscapes Produced by Groundwater |
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284 | (4) |
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288 | (1) |
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12.5 Groundwater Resources and Environmental Problems |
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289 | (10) |
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Chapter 13 Processes and Landforms in Arid Environments |
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299 | (22) |
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300 | (3) |
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13.2 Processes in Arid Regions |
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303 | (1) |
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13.3 Progressive Evolution of Arid Landscapes |
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303 | (11) |
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314 | (7) |
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Chapter 14 Shoreline Landscapes |
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321 | (38) |
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322 | (1) |
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14.2 Factors Controlling Shoreline Erosion and Deposition |
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322 | (1) |
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14.3 Evolution of Coastal Landforms |
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322 | (5) |
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322 | (1) |
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323 | (1) |
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323 | (3) |
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326 | (1) |
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14.4 Emergent and Submergent Shorelines |
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327 | (7) |
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14.5 Erosional and Depositional Shoreline Features |
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334 | (13) |
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14.5.1 Erosional Features |
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334 | (4) |
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14.5.2 Depositional Features |
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338 | (9) |
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14.6 When Shorelines Become Dangerous |
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347 | (12) |
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347 | (1) |
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348 | (7) |
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355 | (4) |
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Chapter 15 Interpreting Geologic Structures on Block Diagrams, Geologic Maps, and Cross Sections |
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359 | (34) |
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360 | (1) |
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15.2 Beginning with the Basics: Contacts and Attitude |
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361 | (3) |
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15.2.1 Geologic Contacts and Geologic Formations |
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361 | (1) |
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15.2.2 Describing the Orientation of Layers: Strike and Dip |
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362 | (2) |
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15.3 Working with Block Diagrams |
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364 | (8) |
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15.3.1 Block Diagrams of Flat-Lying and Dipping Strata |
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364 | (2) |
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15.3.2 Block Diagrams of Simple Folds |
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366 | (2) |
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15.3.3 Block Diagrams of Faults |
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368 | (2) |
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15.3.4 Block Diagrams of Unconformities |
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370 | (1) |
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15.3.5 Block Diagrams of Igneous Intrusions |
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370 | (2) |
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372 | (9) |
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15.4.1 Introducing Geologic Maps and Map Symbols |
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372 | (4) |
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15.4.2 Constructing Cross Sections |
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376 | (2) |
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15.4.3 Basic Geologic Map Patterns |
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378 | (1) |
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15.4.4 Geologic Maps with Contour Lines |
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379 | (2) |
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15.5 Structures Revealed in Landscapes |
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381 | (3) |
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15.6 Reading Real Geologic Maps |
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384 | (9) |
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15.6.1 Geologic Maps of Local Areas |
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384 | (4) |
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15.6.2 Geologic Maps of State- to Continent-Sized Areas |
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388 | (2) |
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15.6.3 Walk a Mile in Our Field Boots |
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390 | (3) |
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Chapter 16 Earthquakes and Seismology |
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393 | (24) |
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394 | (1) |
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16.2 Causes of Earthquakes: Seismic Waves |
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394 | (2) |
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16.3 Locating Earthquakes and Measuring Magnitude |
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396 | (13) |
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16.4 Predicting Earthquake Hazards: Liquefaction |
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409 | (5) |
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414 | (3) |
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Appendix 16.1 Seismic Analysis Worksheets |
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415 | (2) |
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Chapter 17 Interpreting Geologic History: What Happened, and When did it Happen? |
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417 | |
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418 | (1) |
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17.2 Physical Criteria for Determining Relative Age |
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418 | (7) |
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17.2.1 Principles of Original Horizontality and Superposition |
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418 | (1) |
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17.2.2 Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships |
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419 | (2) |
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17.2.3 Principle of Inclusions |
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421 | (1) |
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17.2.4 Sedimentary Structures |
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422 | (3) |
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17.3 Unconformities: Evidence for a Gap in the Geologic Record |
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425 | (4) |
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17.4 Biological Methods for Relative Age Dating and Correlation |
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429 | (4) |
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17.4.1 Principle of Faunal and Floral Succession |
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429 | (1) |
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17.4.2 The Geologic Time Scale |
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429 | (1) |
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429 | (4) |
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17.5 Correlation: Fitting Pieces of the Puzzle Together |
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433 | (3) |
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17.6 Numerical Age Dating |
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436 | |
